Butyric acid: what it is, properties, use, harmfulness

Used in food, cosmetics and even agriculture. Butyric acid is not only versatile, but also has a range of health benefits.

If you want to learn more, please visit our website Yufeng.

Also known as butanoic acid, it is a fascinating ingredient that can be just as versatile in your body. It is believed to counteract inflammation or regulate insulin metabolism, for example. What's more, your body produces it on its own, helped by probiotic bacteria.

From this article you will learn:

• What is butyric acid and how it differs from sodium butyrate.
• How it works.
• How butyric acid works and how it is synthesised in the body.
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• What ailments can butyric acid help with.
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• How to ensure the right concentration of butyric acid in the body.
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• Whether butyric acid can cause harm.
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See also:

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What is butyric acid?

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Butyric acid, also known as butanoic acid, is a short chain fatty acid ( short chain fatty acids - SCFA) that plays a key role in gut health. It is produced by the bacteria that live in your digestive system.

Wondering how it works? When you eat fibre that is indigestible to your body, it passes into the large intestine. There, probiotic bacteria residing in the colon convert this fibre into butyric acid. This is a perfect example of symbiosis, where both parties benefit - the bacteria have nourishment and you get an essential substance for your health .

Butyric acid is extremely important for your gut. It acts as a kind of fuel for the epithelial cells lining the colon, helping them to maintain a healthy intestinal barrier. This is important because this barrier prevents harmful substances from entering your body .

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As early as the s, studies were conducted that conclusively established butyric acid as a major source of energy for colonocytes, offering hope for its use in the prevention and treatment of gastrointestinal diseases.

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Katarzyna Grajpermagister of pharmacy

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What's more, butyric acid has anti-inflammatory properties, which may help to relieve inflammation in the gut. Some studies also suggest that it may help regulate blood sugar levels and improve metabolism. However, these are preliminary and inconclusive conclusions, so should be approached with caution .

So it is worth paying attention to your diet and making sure you are providing your body with enough fibre. By doing so, the probiotic bacteria will be able to produce butyric acid, which will contribute to your gut health.

Butyric acid versus sodium butyrate

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Sodium butyrate is the sodium salt of butyric acid, or a derivative of it. The molecules of butyric acid and butyrate are chemically different . However, the properties of the two substances are so similar that their names are often used interchangeably.

In practice, the sodium atom in butyrate makes this butyric acid derivative more stable. It is for this reason that you will most often encounter sodium butyrate in dietary supplements.

Sodium butyrate is the most common name.

Best for digestion

Premium Sodium Butyrate

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• Sodium butyrate content per daily serving: mg
• Form: capsules
• Package: 60 capsules
• Serving size: 3 capsules per day
• Sufficient for: 30 days

See priceProduct description

Premium Sodium Butyrate is a natural support for your digestive system. With a high dose of butyric acid (940 mg), it supports the regeneration of the intestinal mucosa, improving gut health and function, and aids in the absorption of nutrients. By taking care of your intestines, you're taking care of the health of your entire body.

Studies involving people suffering from irritable bowel syndrome confirm that sodium butyrate is ideal for supporting issues related to bacterial flora imbalances (for example, after antibiotic therapy), constipation and diarrhea, inflammation of the intestinal mucosa, or a diet low in fiber.

Premium Sodium Butyrate capsules are made using the innovative DRcaps® technology. This guarantees that the active ingredients in the product are protected from the destructive effects of stomach acids and digestive enzymes. As a result, we can be sure that the beneficial ingredients are released in the small intestine and are fully absorbed by our body.

Premium Sodium Butyrate from Natu Care is 100% tested, and its composition contains only the highest quality raw materials.

Pros and cons

Pros:

• Supports digestive system function
• Helpful for various gastrointestinal conditions, including IBS
• High dose of butyric acid in each capsule
• Eco-friendly, clean, and tested composition
• Free from added sugar, gluten, GMOs, and lactose
• Innovative capsule technology - DRcaps

Cons:

• None

Additional Information

Take 3 capsules daily at any time of the day, preferably with a meal. Swallow the capsules whole with water.
Premium Sodium Butyrate is intended for adults.
The product should be used under medical supervision.

User review

I've been using the product for 2 weeks. My stomach feels lighter, and my digestion has improved. I recommend it.

Properties of butyric acid

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Butyric acid is a key ingredient for the proper functioning of the epithelial cells of the colon, called colonocytes. It provides up to 70% of the energy these cells need to function . 

This, however, is not the only function that butyric acid has in our bodies. It is currently the subject of scientific research to understand its potential effects on the immune system and its ability to reduce inflammation. In addition, its properties affecting insulin regulation are also being studied.

Although the exact mechanism of action of butyric acid at the biochemical level is not yet fully understood, there is some evidence to suggest that it may affect various aspects of bodily function. This may include :

• impact on the immune response, 
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• cell differentiation,
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• natural process of elimination of defective and damaged cells,
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Butyric acid may also help to strengthen the protective barrier in the intestines by participating in the production of the mucus that lining them .

Applications of butyric acid

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Butyric acid is a well-known ally in the fight against various digestive problems. First and foremost, this metabolite plays a key role in protecting and regenerating the end sections of the digestive system .

It is also an effective solution if you are struggling with problems such as bloating or constipation. Butyric acid aids intestinal peristalsis, which in practice means that it facilitates the bowel movement process. 

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The usefulness of butyric acid in infectious diarrhoea has also been clinically confirmed. This is related, among other things, to the mechanism of regulation of water and electrolyte absorption in the cell membrane of colonocytes.

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Katarzyna Grajpermagister of pharmacy

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What's more, butyric acid helps to control gas accumulation in the intestines. As a result, you are able to reduce the unpleasant bloating that can cause discomfort .

It is also worth adding that some studies suggest additional benefits for your body. Some scientific work has shown that butyric acid may contribute to maintaining a healthy body weight, by regulating metabolic processes related to insulin and lipid production . 

Do not, however, consider butyric acid (or its derivative, sodium butyrate) as a weight-loss agent. There is still a dispute among scientists about how butyric acid affects our metabolism. 

Most studies are in vitro experiments or those involving animals. There are also researchers who point in their work to links between high concentrations of butyrate or butyric acid and metabolic disorders and cardiovascular disease - as you can see, in this case, what's too much is unhealthy .

Butyric acid for the gut

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Butyric acid has many important functions in your intestines. Not only is it a source of energy for the cells of the colon, but it also supports their regeneration. In addition, it supports the production of mucus, which is an important part of the protective intestinal barrier .

Thanks to this, butyric acid helps to protect your body from harmful substances and pathogens that could enter the bloodstream through this route.

Animal studies suggest that butyric acid may provide relief from irritable bowel syndrome (IBS) symptoms, such as abdominal pain or irregular bowel movements . 

A study review indicates that butyric acid derivatives may be helpful in the treatment of colorectal cancer. The results suggest that the ingredient may induce cancer cell death, improve the efficacy of radiotherapy and protect mucosa from degradation that can occur during chemotherapy .

Butyric acid provides energy to healthy cells and at the same time may inhibit the growth of cancerous ones, a phenomenon known as the Warburg effect. Therefore, there is a hypothesis that certain strains probiotics may exhibit anti-cancer effects .

Butyric acid is also used by intestinal cells to produce energy, which increases oxygen consumption by the epithelium. As a result, the presence of butyric acid-producing bacteria helps to maintain an anaerobic environment in the intestines, which further protects against the colonisation of aerobic pathogens such as Salmonella or bacteria E. coli.

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What is butyric acid found in?

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Butyric acid is not only found in your intestines. Some foods - especially milk and milk products (dairy products), for example butter, cream, yoghurt or hard yellow cheeses - also contain small amounts of it. Support for butyric acid synthesis can also be provided by products rich in probiotics and prebiotics.

By increasing the amount of probiotics in your gut, you increase the amount producers of butyric acid. And by eating prebiotic foods, you provide them with the necessary materials for this production.

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Products rich in probiotics

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Products rich in prebiotics (GOS and FOS fibre)*

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• yoghurt,
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• kefir,
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• buttermilk,
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• sugared milk,
• sugared milk,
• flax,
• flax,
• buttermilk,
• sugared milk,
• flax.
• miso,
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• tempeh,
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• sauerkraut,
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• pickled cucumbers,
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• cold boiled potatoes,
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• artichokes,
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• asparagus,
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• broccoli,
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• carrots,
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• garlic,
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• soy,
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• legumes,
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• peas,
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• apple,
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• currants,
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• morels,
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• bananas,
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• kiwi,
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• raspberries,
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• oranges,
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* GOS and FOS fibre are oligosaccharides, or complex carbohydrates (fructooligosaccharides and galactooligosaccharides), which do not digest in the stomach but are only fermented in the large intestine - providing food for probiotic bacteria and contributing to butyric acid production.

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Best results will be achieved by using different fibre fractions from three different groups including cereals, vegetables and fruit. Also ensure adequate hydration.

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Katarzyna Grajpermagister of pharmacy

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Butyric acid sweetness

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The company is the world’s best butyric acid benefits supplier. We are your one-stop shop for all needs. Our staff are highly-specialized and will help you find the product you need.

Butyric acid is considered safe, but there are situations in which its use must be abandoned.

Do not take butyric acid or its derivatives (butyrate) if :

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• you are allergic to butyric acid or any other ingredient in the supplement,
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• you have kidney problems, as butyric acid is removed from the body specifically by the kidneys,
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• you suffer from heart disease, as butyric acid can affect sodium levels in the body, which can be dangerous,
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• you should limit fibre in your diet because of certain digestive ailments,
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• you are pregnant or breastfeeding - the safety of using butyric acid during these periods is not well studied,
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• you are taking any medication - in which case consult your doctor before starting supplementation, as butyric acid may interact with some substances.

Despite its benefits, butyric acid can cause some side effects, although this is rather rare. The most common are gastrointestinal problems such as increased bowel function, nausea, abdominal pain and diarrhoea, and changes in appetite . 

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Often these symptoms disappear after a few days, but if they are bothersome or worsen, you should stop supplementation and consult your doctor.

The effects of allergic reactions are a different matter. Their symptoms are :

• rash, 
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• catarrh, 
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• swelling,
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• difficulty breathing, 
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If this occurs, discontinue use of the butyric acid preparation immediately and contact your doctor.

See also:

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Summary

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• Butyric acid is a metabolite of the fermentation of fibre by probiotic bacteria that inhabit the large intestine.
• Butyric acid is the main source of energy for colon epithelial cells. It also has protective and regenerative functions.
• Butyric acid can promote intestinal peristalsis and support the production of mucus, which is part of the natural intestinal barrier.
• The effects of butyric acid and its derivative, butyrate, in the context of influencing insulin and lipid metabolism and combating inflammation in the body are currently being investigated.
• Butyrate is an important component of the intestinal barrier.
• The appropriate concentration of butyric acid in the body is best ensured by consuming foods rich in GOS and FOS fibre, as well as probiotics.
• Butyric acid can also be taken in dietary supplements. It is most commonly found in these in the form of sodium butyrate.
• Butyrate supplements are also a good way to take it.
• Supplements with butyrate or butyric acid should be avoided by people with heart disease and ailments that require restricted fibre intake.

FAQ

.. How to make butyric acid at home .

Note: butyric acid is a really smelly thing. Think twice about whether you want to make it at home (if you live in a block of flats, think about your neighbours too). Another important thing: Do not eat butyric acid obtained this way! 

To make butyric acid, all you need to do is leave the butter out of the fridge - until it goes rancid. But to be able to isolate it, you can use this recipe:

1. Melt 500ml of butter in a pot over a low heat; 
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2. Add 500 ml distilled water, stir to combine. 
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3. Pour the mixture into a jar and add 2 tablespoons of natural yogurt as a starter. 
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4. Cover the jar and keep in a warm place for 2-3 days. 
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5. After this time, strain the liquid through a thick sieve, separating the solids. 
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6. Heat the remaining liquid to 100°C until the water evaporates. 
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7. The residue that remains is butyric acid.
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. Where does butyric acid occur? .

Butyric acid occurs naturally in many products, especially butter. You will also find it in other dairy products such as cheese, cream and yoghurt. Furthermore, it is also contained in ghee, a type of clarified butter. 

Butyric acid is also produced in the human body - in the gut, as a result of the fermentation of fibre by bacteria. For this reason, eat fibre-rich foods such as fruit, vegetables, nuts, seeds and whole-grain cereal products. This is important because butyric acid has many health benefits. It has anti-inflammatory effects and supports gut health.

. What are the side effects of taking butyric acid? .

Taking butyric acid can lead to several side effects. The most common are abdominal pain, bloating, diarrhoea and nausea. For these symptoms, reduce the dose of butyric acid or divide it into several smaller portions throughout the day. This may help to minimise discomfort. Sometimes an allergic reaction may also occur.

. What is the smell of butyric acid? .

Butyric acid has an intense, unpleasant odour that is often compared to the smell of... vomit. This is due to the specific chemical structure of this acid, which contains four carbon atoms in its chain. However, in small quantities, it can contribute to the characteristic taste of some foods (especially cheese).

. What is the formula of butyric acid? .

The chemical formula of butyric acid is C4H8O2. It is a carboxylic acid that consists of four carbon atoms (C), eight hydrogen atoms (H) and two oxygen atoms (O). Carbon (C) comes first, followed by hydrogen (H) and finally oxygen (O). 

This order is important because it indicates the structure of the molecule. Other chemical formulas of butyric acid that you may encounter are C3H7COOH and CH3(CH2)2COOH.

. How much does butyric acid cost? .

Dietary supplements containing butyric acid, or more commonly its derivative - sodium butyrate - cost from around £30 to £150. Differences in price may be due to the quality of the raw material itself, the size of the packaging and the additional active ingredients used in the formulation.

. Is butyric acid in medicinal form? .

Butyric acid (also in the form of sodium butyrate) is only available in Poland as a dietary supplement. You can find it in health food shops or pharmacies. Only buy products from trusted manufacturers to ensure the best quality and safety. 

Butyric acid is important for intestinal health, as it is the main source of energy for intestinal epithelial cells. An example of a product containing butyric acid in the form of sodium butyrate is Panaseus Formula for the Gut.

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Resources

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: Immune Network :: (n.d.). Retrieved November 3, , from https://immunenetwork.org/DOIx.php?id=10./in..20.e15

Amiri, P., Hosseini, S. A., Roshanravan, N., Saghafi-Asl, M., & Tootoonchian, M. (). The effects of sodium butyrate supplementation on the expression levels of PGC-1α, PPARα, and UCP-1 genes, serum level of GLP-1, metabolic parameters, and anthropometric indices in obese individuals on weight loss diets: A study protocol for a triple-blind, randomized, placebo-controlled clinical trial. Trials, 24(1), 489. https://doi.org/10./s-022--9

Banasiewicz, T., Domagalska, D., Borycka-Kiciak, K., & Rydzewska, G. (). Determination of butyric acid dosage based on clinical and experimental studies - a literature review. Gastroenterology Review/Review of Gastroenterology, 15(2), 119-125. https://doi.org/10./pg..

Birt, D. F., Boylston, T., Hendrich, S., Jane, J.-L., Hollis, J., Li, L., McClelland, J., Moore, S., Phillips, G. J., Rowling, M., Schalinske, K., Scott, M. P., & Whitley, E. M. (). Resistant Starch: Promise for Improving Human Health. Advances in Nutrition, 4(6), 587-601. https://doi.org/10./an.113.

Borycka-Kiciak, K., Banasiewicz, T., & Rydzewska, G. (). Butyric acid - a well-known molecule revisited. Gastroenterology Review/Review of Gastroenterology, 12(2), 83-89. https://doi.org/10./pg..

Butyric Acid-An overview | ScienceDirect Topics. (n.d.). Retrieved November 10, , from https://www.sciencedirect.com/topics/medicine-and-dentistry/butyric-acid

Candido, E. P. M., Reeves, R., & Davie, J. R. (). Sodium butyrate inhibits histone deacetylation in cultured cells. Cell, 14(1), 105-113. https://doi.org/10./-(78)-7

De la Cuesta-Zuluaga, J., Mueller, N. T., Álvarez-Quintero, R., Velásquez-Mejía, E. P., Sierra, J. A., Corrales-Agudelo, V., Carmona, J. A., Abad, J. M., & Escobar, J. S. (). Higher Fecal Short-Chain Fatty Acid Levels Are Associated with Gut Microbiome Dysbiosis, Obesity, Hypertension and Cardiometabolic Disease Risk Factors. Nutrients, 11(1), Article 1. https://doi.org/10./nu

Effects of oral butyrate supplementation on inflammatory potential of circulating peripheral blood mononuclear cells in healthy and obese males | Scientific Reports. (n.d.). Retrieved November 3, , from https://www.nature.com/articles/s-018--7

Frontiers | Protective role of butyrate in obesity and diabetes: New insights. (n.d.). Retrieved November 5, , from https://www.frontiersin.org/articles/10./fnut../full

Kaźmierczak-Siedlecka, K., Marano, L., Merola, E., Roviello, F., & Połom, K. (). Sodium butyrate in both prevention and supportive treatment of colorectal cancer. Frontiers in Cellular and Infection Microbiology, 12. https://www.frontiersin.org/articles/10./fcimb..

Lewandowski, K., Kaniewska, M., Karlowicz, K., Rosolowski, M., & Rydzewska, G. (). The effectiveness of microencapsulated sodium butyrate at reducing symptoms in patients with irritable bowel syndrome. Gastroenterology Review/Review of Gastroenterology, 17(1), 28-34. https://doi.org/10./pg..

Liu, H., Wang, J., He, T., Becker, S., Zhang, G., Li, D., & Ma, X. (). Butyrate: A Double-Edged Sword for Health? Advances in Nutrition, 9(1), 21-29. https://doi.org/10./advances/nmx009

Sodium butyrate in the treatment of functional and inflammatory bowel disease | Practical Gastroenterology-Practitioner's Journal. (n.d.). Retrieved November 3, , from https://gastroenterologia-praktyczna.pl/a/Maslan-sodu-w-leczeniu-chorob-czynnosciowych-i-zapalnych-jelit.html/

Miller, A. A., Kurschel, E., Osieka, R., & Schmidt, C. G. (). Clinical pharmacology of sodium butyrate in patients with acute leukemia. European Journal of Cancer and Clinical Oncology, 23(9), -. https://doi.org/10./-(87)-X

Pietrzak, A., Banasiuk, M., Szczepanik, M., Borys-Iwanicka, A., Pytrus, T., Walkowiak, J., & Banaszkiewicz, A. (). Sodium Butyrate Effectiveness in Children and Adolescents with Newly Diagnosed Inflammatory Bowel Diseases-Randomized Placebo-Controlled Multicenter Trial. Nutrients, 14(16), Article 16. https://doi.org/10./nu

Säemann, M. D., Böhmig, G. A., Österreicher, C. H., Burtscher, H., Parolini, O., Diakos, C., Stöckl, J., Hörl, W. H., & Zlabinger, G. J. (). Anti-inflammatory effects of sodium butyrate on human monocytes: Potent inhibition of IL-12 and up-regulation of IL-10 production. The FASEB Journal, 14(15), -. https://doi.org/10./fj.00-fje

Segain, J.-P., Blétière, D. R. de la, Bourreille, A., Leray, V., Gervois, N., Rosales, C., Ferrier, L., Bonnet, C., Blottière, H. M., & Galmiche, J.-P. (). Butyrate inhibits inflammatory responses through NFκB inhibition: Implications for Crohn's disease. Gut, 47(3), 397-403. https://doi.org/10./gut.47.3.397

Sodium butyrate. (n.d.). American Chemical Society. Retrieved November 3, , from https://www.acs.org/molecule-of-the-week/archive/s/sodium-butyrate.html

Spina, L., Cavallaro, F., Fardowza, N. I., Lagoussis, P., Bona, D., Ciscato, C., Rigante, A., & Vecchi, M. (). Butyric acid: Pharmacological aspects and routes of administration. Digestive and Liver Disease Supplements, 1(1), 7-11. https://doi.org/10./S-(08)-2

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Summer, A., Formaggioni, P., Franceschi, P., Di Frangia, F., Righi, F., & Malacarne, M. (). Cheese as Functional Food: The Example of Parmigiano Reggiano and Grana Padano. Food Technology and Biotechnology, 55(3), 277-289. https://doi.org/10./ftb.55.03.17.

Xu, Y.-H., Gao, C.-L., Guo, H.-L., Zhang, W.-Q., Huang, W., Tang, S.-S., Gan, W.-J., Xu, Y., Zhou, H., & Zhu, Q. (). Sodium butyrate supplementation ameliorates diabetic inflammation in db/db mice. Journal of Endocrinology, 238(3), 231-244. https://doi.org/10./JOE-18-

Zou, X., Ji, J., Qu, H., Wang, J., Shu, D. M., Wang, Y., Liu, T. F., Li, Y., & Luo, C. L. (). Effects of sodium butyrate on intestinal health and gut microbiota composition during intestinal inflammation progression in broilers. Poultry Science, 98(10), -. https://doi.org/10./ps/pez279

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Abstract

Butyric acid (butanoic acid) belongs to a group of short-chain fatty acids and is thought to play several beneficial roles in the gastrointestinal tract. Butyric anion is easily absorbed by enteric cells and used as a main source of energy. Moreover, butyric acid is an important regulator of colonocyte proliferation and apoptosis, gastrointestinal tract motility and bacterial microflora composition in addition to its involvement in many other processes including immunoregulation and anti-inflammatory activity. The pathogenesis of irritable bowel syndrome (IBS), the most commonly diagnosed functional gastrointestinal condition, is complex, and its precise mechanisms are still unclear. This article describes the potential benefits of butyric acid in IBS.

Keywords: butyric acid, sodium butyrate, irritable bowel syndrome

Irritable bowel syndrome

Irritable bowel syndrome (IBS) is a functional bowel disorder that generates a significant health care burden and is the most commonly diagnosed functional gastrointestinal condition. Approximately 12% of adults in the general population experience symptoms of IBS [1, 2]. Several definitions of IBS exist. Table I shows the most commonly used diagnostic criteria, the so-called Rome III Criteria, for IBS in adults [3]. According to these criteria, IBS is classified into four subtypes based on predominant stool patterns, as shown in Table II. An American College of Gastroenterology position statement published in defines IBS as an abdominal pain or discomfort that occurs in association with altered bowel habits over a period of at least 3 months [4]. The pathophysiological mechanisms of IBS are still unknown. Brain&#;gut interactions, visceral hypersensitivity, abnormal motility, intestinal inflammation, post-infectious disturbances and alteration of microflora have all been suspected to play a role in the pathogenesis of this syndrome [5, 6]. Visceral hypersensitivity is believed to be a major contributing factor to abdominal pain in patients with IBS. Psychosocial factors seem to be also involved in the pathogenesis of IBS [7].

Table I.

Diagnostic criteria* for irritable bowel syndrome

Recurrent abdominal pain or discomfort** at least 3 days per month in the last 3 months associated with 2 or more of the following:

1. Improvement with defecation

2. Onset associated with a change in frequency of stools

3. Onset associated with a change in form (appearance) of stools

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Table II.

Subtyping IBS by predominant stool pattern

1. IBS with constipation (IBS-C) &#; hard or lumpy stools &#; 25% and loose (mushy) or watery stools < 25% of bowel movements 2. IBS with diarrhoea (IBS-D) &#; loose (mushy) or watery stools &#; 25% and hard or lumpy stool < 25% of bowel movements 3. Mixed IBS (IBS-M) &#; hard or lumpy stools &#; 25% and loose (mushy) or watery stools &#; 25% of bowel movement 4. Unsubtyped IBS &#; insufficient abnormality of stool consistency to meet criteria for IBS-C, D or M Open in a new tab

Irritable bowel syndrome management

Because the pathogenesis of IBS is unclear, treatment focuses on the relief of symptoms such as bloating, abdominal pain, diarrhoea and constipation. Treatment difficulties are increased by the heterogeneity of the IBS population (wide range of patient ages and complaints, varying degrees of symptom severity), lack of unequivocal treatment algorithms, and remarkably high placebo response rate with short-term trials reporting response rates of 16&#;71.4% [8]. Therefore, treatment strategies should be individualized with an emphasis on developing a good doctor-patient relationship. The management of IBS consists of changes in lifestyle, including eliminating high-gas foods such as carbonated beverages, salads, raw fruits and vegetables (especially cabbage, broccoli and cauliflower), and increasing physical activity. A high-fibre diet, as well as fibre supplements and osmotic laxatives that increase stool frequency are recommended for constipation-predominant IBS, while anti-diarrheal treatment is recommended for diarrhoea-predominant IBS. Moreover, various medications, including anticholinergics, antidepressants, antibiotics, simethicone and probiotics, have all been used in the treatment of IBS. The vast majority of these medications provide short-term relief, but evidence for their long-term efficacy has not been established. Evidence of the safety and tolerability of these drugs is limited. For all of these reasons, there is a great need for new IBS therapies.

Butyrates in the treatment of irritable bowel syndrome

Butyrates represent a potential new IBS therapy. To date, a few trials have been performed to evaluate the effectiveness of sodium butyrate on clinical symptoms and quality of life in patients with IBS. Banasiewicz et al. performed a double-blind, randomized, placebo-controlled study in which 66 adult patients with IBS received microcapsulated butyric acid at a dose of 300 mg per day or placebo as an adjunct to standard therapy. At four weeks, there was a statistically significant decrease in the frequency of abdominal pain during defecation in the butyric acid group (p = 0.). At 12 weeks, decreases in the frequency of spontaneous abdominal pain (p = 0.), postprandial abdominal pain (p = 0.), abdominal pain during defecation (p = 0.) and urge after defecation (p = 0.) were observed [9, 10]. In a preliminary report, Tarnowski et al. demonstrated an improvement of abdominal pain, abdominal discomfort and defecation rhythm in patients with IBS treated with microcapsulated sodium butyrate for 6 weeks, compared to those treated with placebo. In the same study, higher quality of life was noted in patients treated with butyrate [11]. It is worth noting that no side effects were observed during treatment with protected sodium butyrate, which confirms the safety of its use in clinical practice. Although the results of these two trials seem to be promising, the effectiveness of butyrate in the treatment of IBS needs to be confirmed. There is also a need for studies of the effectiveness of butyrate in children and adolescents.

Butyric acid

Butyric, acetic and propionic acids account for approximately 83% of the short-chain fatty acids (SCFAs) in the human colon [12].The concentration of these acids in the intestinal lumen ranges from 60 mmol/kg to 150 mmol/kg [13], and the acetate-propionate-butyrate balance is relatively constant, with a typical ratio of 60 : 25 : 10 [14]. Short-chain fatty acids are rapidly absorbed by the epithelium of the gastrointestinal tract. In the large bowel, absorption reaches peak levels in the caecum and ascending colon by both active and passive transport [15, 16]. Production levels of butyric acid in the sigmoid colon and the rectum are low. Butyrate is the preferred energy source for colonic epithelial cells [17]. A well-balanced diet, rich in probiotics, prebiotics and fibre, is the preferred source of butyrate. Similarly to other SCFAs (acetic, propionic), endogenous butyric acid is produced by the bacterial fermentation of non-digestible carbohydrates and hexose oligomers with varying degrees of polymerization, such as non-starch polysaccharides, resistant starch, oligosaccharides (inulin and oligofructose), disaccharides (lactose) and sugar alcohols (sorbitol and mannitol) [13, 15]. Resistant starch has been found to be particularly butyrogenic. It occurs naturally in partially milled grains and seeds, uncooked potatoes, green bananas and various vegetables. The species of bacteria involved in the production of butyrate are Clostridium spp., Eubacterium spp., Fusobacterium spp., Butyrivibrio spp., Megasphaera elsdenii, Mitsuokella multiacida, Roseburia intestinalis, Faecalibacterium prausnitzii and Eubacterium hallii [18]. Recently, an increased intake of highly processed, low-fibre food products rich in simple sugars has been observed, resulting in low levels of butyrate production in the intestinal lumen. Therefore, butyrate supplementation potentially represents a good alternative to dietary intake. Bird et al. documented an association between increased consumption of resistant starch and the amount of butyrate in faeces, and a lack of association with the incidence of diet-dependent disorders [19].

Pure butyric acid has an extremely pungent smell, which makes it very difficult to handle. It is quickly absorbed in the upper part of the gastrointestinal tract, which reduces its positive effects in the colon. These characteristics limit the clinical utility of pure butyric acid. Recently, a new range of products has been developed, in which butyric acid is encapsulated in a triglyceride matrix, resulting in slow release during its transport through the intestinal tract. Considering the potential pathophysiological factors involved in the aetiology of IBS, which include brain-intestine interactions, visceral hypersensitivity, abnormal motility, intestinal inflammation, post-infectious disturbances and alteration of microflora, in the next paragraph, we briefly summarize the possible mechanisms of action of butyrate that may be useful in the treatment of IBS.

Potential butyrate mechanisms of action

Butyratedirectly influences the gastrointestinal flora. The presence of butyrate-producing bacteria species suppresses the growth of Escherichia coli, Campylobacter spp., Salmonella spp. and Shigella spp. [20]. Butyric acid may also play a beneficial role in the treatment of gastrointestinal infections. In experimental shigellosis, enteric supplementation of SCFAs reduced congestion, infiltration of inflammatory cells, and necrotizing features in the mucosa, which resulted in a reduced amount of faecal blood and mucus [21]. The efficacy of butyric acid in the prevention of water, sodium, chlorine and potassium loss confirms observations made in animals with cholera [22]. The fact that the passive absorption of water in the colon depends on the presence of SCFAs may explain the potential role of butyrate in clinical conditions involving diarrhoea [23]. The trophic effects of butyrate on intestinal cell proliferation have been demonstrated in animal models. Dietary supplementation with butyrate stimulated the elongation of the villi in the ileum and crypt depth in the caecum [24, 25]. Butyric acid has also been shown to exert potent anti-inflammatory effects both in vitro and in vivo. Its immunoregulatory and anti-inflammatory activity is presumably based on the topical inhibition of inflammatory mediators in the epithelium. The ability of butyrate to decrease concentrations of pro-inflammatory cytokines such as interleukin 8 (IL-8) and tumor necrosis factor-α (TNF-α) has been documented [26]. In mice, the intrarectal administration of butyric acid during an acute phase of experimental colitis attenuated intestinal inflammatory parameters [27]. Some anti-inflammatory effects of butyrate in the treatment of ulcerative colitis and radiation proctitis were also observed [28, 29]. The precise mechanisms underlying these effects have not been fully elucidated. The relief of abdominal pain seems to be a very important aspect of IBS treatment. Butyrate has a probable beneficial influence on the hypersensitivity of intestinal receptors, which results in a decrease of intraintestinal pressure. It improves bowel peristalsis and retractility of the circular muscle layer [9].

In summary, butyrate supplementation seems to be a promising therapy for IBS. However, data on its effectiveness are still very limited.

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